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Key membrane proteins participating in astrocytic glutamate release are summarized in Figure 3

Additionally, nanotechnology facilitates the development of advanced diagnostic tools that can detect PD at earlier stages, potentially enabling timely intervention and improved patient outcomes (Yadav et al., 2025)

To address these challenges, the use of bioreactors with controlled environmental conditions, including precise regulation of pH, temperature, precursor concentration, extract volume, and agitation speed, has shown potential in improving synthesis efficiency, product yield, and nanoparticle uniformity

mGluRs modulate cell synaptic transmission via secondary messenger systems and are of three types: group one (mainly post-synaptic, mGluR 1 and mGluR 5 ) and groups two (mGluR 2 and mGluR 3 ) and three (mGluR 4 , mGluR 6 , mGluR 7 , and mGluR 8 ) are largely presynaptic and regulate glutamate release [12]